The Sixteen Excellent Contemplations

Yaozhi Shi; Nengcheng Shi; Qingyuan Shi

doi:10.62177/apbs.v1i1.1332

Authors

Yaozhi Shi Lingyanshan Branch, The Buddhist Academy of China
Nengcheng Shi Lingyanshan Branch, The Buddhist Academy of China
Qingyuan Shi Lingyanshan Branch, The Buddhist Academy of China

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.62177/apbs.v1i1.1332

Keywords:

Ānāpānasmṛti, The Sixteen Superior Contemplations, Tiantai School, Chinese Buddhist Meditation, Doctrinal History

Abstract

This paper examines The Sixteen Superior Contemplations in the Ānāpānasmṛti system with three core research questions: canonical origins, textual lineages and divergences across early scriptures; Mahāyānization by the Tiantai School and Huiyuan of Jingying Temple; and theoretical traits and contemporary values. Using textual comparison, historical doctrinal investigation and scholastic exegesis, it establishes a unified framework: textual verification → doctrinal reconstruction → semantic interpretation → theoretical and contemporary implications. Findings show the system evolved from early Theravāda meditation, was systematized by Kumārajīva’s translations, and fully Mahāyānized in the Sui Dynasty. Integrating śamatha and vipaśyanā as well as the Four Applications of Mindfulness, it serves as a key link between Theravāda and Mahāyāna, with great significance for Chinese Buddhism and modern meditation.

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